Psychodynamic Approach
This approach was founded by Freud. His key beliefs were that the first 5 years of life are the most important for personality development. He believed that any problems that are not resolved during these first few years would affect later development. He also emphasised the role of the unconscious as being the most powerful part of the mind; and that everyone has an energy drive called the libido, which drives behaviour.
Freud developed his theories through his work with patients with mental health problems. His emphasis was on neuroses – these are disorders where the patient is aware of the difficulties they are having and have some insight into seeking help to get better.
The Mind/Iceberg Analogy
Freud believed that the mind is made up of 3 parts.
The conscious: this is what the individual is aware of and it consists of thoughts, ideas, emotions and current thinking. It is what you will be using to read this information. This is the top of the iceberg appearing above the surface.
The preconscious: this contains thoughts, ideas and stored knowledge; it can be accessed if needed but is not conscious at that time. We can become aware of it if we want. E.g. remembering when it’s a family member’s birthday the week before. In the iceberg analogy, this is at the surface.
The unconscious: this is the main part of the mind and is the largest part. The unconscious is said to hold information that an individual is not aware of and is hard to access. This can be embarrassing or shameful thoughts. This is where repressed memories are stored. This is below the surface.
By revealing the unconscious Freud believed this could help treat patients as he believed neuroses were caused by behaviour being guided in the
wrong way. He believed that if memories held in the unconscious were brought to conscious awareness this would release the energy that was preventing an individual progressing and cure them of their problem.
Example: Anna O was unable to drink from a glass until her repressed memory of seeing a dog licking glass was revealed
This method of bringing the conscious into unconscious awareness is called psychoanalysis. Methods used in this therapy include free association, slips of the tongue, dream analysis, symbol analysis e.g. ink blot test
Strengths
+ Provides a method of treating mental disorders
+ interpretation can be unique and meaningful to the individual
+ By revealing traumatic experiences and bringing them into the conscious they can then be treated using psychoanalysis
Weaknesses
- Subjective interpretation required – may be interpreted differently by different therapists.
- Based on concepts that cannot be measured scientifically so it is unreliable and also unknown e.g. false memory syndrome can occur
Personality Theory
According to Freud there are 3 parts to personality
The id: the part of personality we are born with. This is the demanding ‘I want’ part of personality and operates on the pleasure
principle. The id is in the unconscious, this means the demands are not conscious – an infant knows what it wants but this is not from conscious thought.
The ego: this is the rational part of personality that develops around 18 months old. This operates in the reality principle . It is
responsible for managing the id and the superego (when it develops) and satisfying the persons needs.
The superego: this is the final part of personality that develops during the phallic stage, around 4 years old. This operates in the morality
principle. The superego consists of the conscience which comes from parents and society who indicate right and wrong. It also consists of the ego ideal – this is how we would like to be based on the views of parents and society. This part of personality is the ‘you can’t have’. The superego is an internalised representation of the same sex parent. Violating the superego’s standards or even the impulse to do so causes anxiety. This anxiety is largely unconscious but may be experienced as guilt. Someone who has failed to internalise the moral standards of society will have few behavioural constraints and may engage in excessively over indulgent or criminal behaviour.
If the Id is in control (the ego has been unable to balance the demands equally), the attitude and behaviour may be 'Just go for it, forget the
consequences'. E.g. if deciding whether to study or go out and party, the id would choose to party.
If the superego is in control (the ego has been unable to balance the demands equally), the individual will listen to conscious thought before acting however this can cause feelings of guilt. E.g. in the above example, the superego would choose to study...and keep studying.
If the ego is successful in managing both the id and the superego, personality is stable and balanced. E.g. study and party in moderation.
Evaluation of personality theory
Strengths
+ Explains the experience of being pulled in different directions when making decisions. Most people have experienced this sensation e.g. students choosing to study or party
+ The concepts of id, ego and superego take into account individual differences e.g. why some people are more conscientious than others
Weaknesses
- The id, ego and superego are not measurable – abstract ideas that are difficult to study. This means that this is not a scientific explanation and lacks credibility
- No evidence of specific components for personality
Defence Mechanisms
According to Freud the ego can be very fragile especially if it has been weakened. This may happen because of problems encountered as a child failing to successfully negotiate one of the key stages of psychosexual development.
How personality affects an individual: The superego places high demands on the ego using the ego ideal to set minimum standards of behaviour – this means that individuals have a perspective of the ‘perfect’ version of themself. The id can be overly demanding – this again puts pressure on the ego to meet its demands. In order to protect itself from anxiety the ego uses defence mechanisms – these are ways in which
desires can be pushed out of conscious thought (protection from the superego and its overly high standards) or transferring the desire onto something safer(meeting the ids demands by meeting the need but in an acceptable way).
The defence mechanisms are:
Repression – thoughts are kept in the unconscious and not allowed into the conscious mind. It is a form of motivated forgetting however this is done unconsciously – the individual is unaware they have these thoughts. E.g. individuals who are abused may say they cannot remember.
Denial – when something traumatic happens but the individual acts as if it did not happen. This protects the individual from unhappy or unacceptable thoughts. E.g. denial of inappropriate sexual feelings
Regression – if an individual is faced with a stressful situation they revert to childhood behaviour. E.g. thumb sucking
Projection – dealing with unacceptable thoughts by saying they are someone elses unacceptable thoughts e.g. someone who cheats on their partner may focus on other individuals who cheat or by projecting it onto their own partner and saying they have cheated
For the exam you must be able to describe repression and one other.
Strengths
+ Evidence to support – Anna O refused to drink from a glass until Freud revealed her repressed memory of a dog licking a window (a repressed memory). This suggests that defence mechanisms keep urges in the unconscious and once revealed problems stop
+ Everyday examples of defence mechanisms e.g. denial is a term commonly used; victims of crimes cannot often remember events
Weaknesses
- Hard to prove the existence of defence mechanisms – we are unable to test these scientifically as they are not measurable. Although examples can be found these are not scientific.
- Subjective – as these are based on individuals interpretation of what the person tells a therapist people may view the behaviour differently e.g. if someone says their sisters hates their father some could consider this projection however another person might interpret this as genuine feelings towards the father
- Case study evidence – this means evidence is based on one individual e.g. Anna O, and may not represent other individuals
Psychosexual Stages
During these stages the libido focuses on different body parts. The first 3 stages are said to be the most important. In these stages if the child is overindulged and their needs are met too much the person will remain fixated. Likewise if their needs are not met, they are frustrated and again the person will remain fixated. This means part of the libido remains locked into this stage. Normal development occurs if none of the libido remains in a previous stage.
Oral: The first psychosexual stage, from birth – 18 months. In this stage the libido is focused on the mouth and the child gains pleasure through sucking e.g. having a dummy or bottle, sucking its thumb. In this stage the id is the only part of personality to have developed, and the infant demands that all its needs are met at once.
Anal: The second stage of development from 18 months – 2.5 years. The libido focused on the anus. Pleasure comes from retaining or expelling faeces. This stage focuses on learning to control instinctive behaviour due to the ego developing, which operates using the reality principle. This means that children learn how to balance what they want with reality e.g. not having ice cream unless they have eaten their dinner.
Phallic: The third psychosexual stage, the libido is focused on the genitals. In this stage children learn their gender through the Oedipus and Electra complex, and are aged 4-5.
Latency: The fourth stage, this is a period of calm where there is no sexual drive. Children in this stage focus on same sex friendship.
Genital: Starts at puberty and is the final psychosexual stage. The libido focused on the genitals and relationships begin to develop with the opposite sex. Normal relationships are formed if the previous stages have been completed successfully.
Fixations
A child at a given stage of development has certain needs and demands, such as the need of the infant to nurse. Frustration occurs when these needs are not met; Overindulgence stems from such an ample meeting of these needs that the child is reluctant to progress beyond
the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence lock some amount of the child's libido permanently into the stage in which they occur; both result in a fixation. This will then dominate and affect adult personality.
Oral: from frustration – pessimistic, sarcastic; from overindulgence – optimistic, gullible. Characteristics shown – smoking, thumb sucking, chewing pens
Anal: If parents are too lenient (overindulgent) the child may have an anal expulsive character in adulthood and be messy, reckless and disorganised. If too harsh an anal retentive character will occur which is tidy, careful and precise.
Phallic: Fixation in this stage can result in someone who is reckless, self assured, vain and proud and may find relationships difficult.
Strengths
+Freud was correct to say that early years and early relationships are important in development
+ Strong support for the existence of oral and anal personalities
+ Other psychologists would also agree that children do develop in stages
+ Little Hans is evidence for gender development and the phallic stage
+ Freud used case studies so he gathered a lot of in depth information in his research
+ It helps people to break habits such as smoking by explaining that habits can link to early childhood trauma so exploring that link can help
people
+ It allowed people with mental disorders to be treated. It showed that the unconscious caused mental disorder so by using dream analysis
to access the unconscious patients could be cured
Weaknesses
- Overemphasis of the importance of body parts, libido, and the sexual nature in children’s development
- Stages too narrow in description of what happens and also stop at adolescence – other psychologists would continue these throughout life
- Oedipus complex is not scientific, and we cannot measure concepts such as penis envy and castration anxiety
- Evidence suggests children are ware of their gender before the genital stage
- Children in single sex families do not have problems understanding their gender
- Not scientific as libido cannot be observed and measured
- Case studies are unique and may not be generalised to the whole population
- Freud’s research was based on female, middle class patients, so may not be representative
This approach was founded by Freud. His key beliefs were that the first 5 years of life are the most important for personality development. He believed that any problems that are not resolved during these first few years would affect later development. He also emphasised the role of the unconscious as being the most powerful part of the mind; and that everyone has an energy drive called the libido, which drives behaviour.
Freud developed his theories through his work with patients with mental health problems. His emphasis was on neuroses – these are disorders where the patient is aware of the difficulties they are having and have some insight into seeking help to get better.
The Mind/Iceberg Analogy
Freud believed that the mind is made up of 3 parts.
The conscious: this is what the individual is aware of and it consists of thoughts, ideas, emotions and current thinking. It is what you will be using to read this information. This is the top of the iceberg appearing above the surface.
The preconscious: this contains thoughts, ideas and stored knowledge; it can be accessed if needed but is not conscious at that time. We can become aware of it if we want. E.g. remembering when it’s a family member’s birthday the week before. In the iceberg analogy, this is at the surface.
The unconscious: this is the main part of the mind and is the largest part. The unconscious is said to hold information that an individual is not aware of and is hard to access. This can be embarrassing or shameful thoughts. This is where repressed memories are stored. This is below the surface.
By revealing the unconscious Freud believed this could help treat patients as he believed neuroses were caused by behaviour being guided in the
wrong way. He believed that if memories held in the unconscious were brought to conscious awareness this would release the energy that was preventing an individual progressing and cure them of their problem.
Example: Anna O was unable to drink from a glass until her repressed memory of seeing a dog licking glass was revealed
This method of bringing the conscious into unconscious awareness is called psychoanalysis. Methods used in this therapy include free association, slips of the tongue, dream analysis, symbol analysis e.g. ink blot test
Strengths
+ Provides a method of treating mental disorders
+ interpretation can be unique and meaningful to the individual
+ By revealing traumatic experiences and bringing them into the conscious they can then be treated using psychoanalysis
Weaknesses
- Subjective interpretation required – may be interpreted differently by different therapists.
- Based on concepts that cannot be measured scientifically so it is unreliable and also unknown e.g. false memory syndrome can occur
Personality Theory
According to Freud there are 3 parts to personality
The id: the part of personality we are born with. This is the demanding ‘I want’ part of personality and operates on the pleasure
principle. The id is in the unconscious, this means the demands are not conscious – an infant knows what it wants but this is not from conscious thought.
The ego: this is the rational part of personality that develops around 18 months old. This operates in the reality principle . It is
responsible for managing the id and the superego (when it develops) and satisfying the persons needs.
The superego: this is the final part of personality that develops during the phallic stage, around 4 years old. This operates in the morality
principle. The superego consists of the conscience which comes from parents and society who indicate right and wrong. It also consists of the ego ideal – this is how we would like to be based on the views of parents and society. This part of personality is the ‘you can’t have’. The superego is an internalised representation of the same sex parent. Violating the superego’s standards or even the impulse to do so causes anxiety. This anxiety is largely unconscious but may be experienced as guilt. Someone who has failed to internalise the moral standards of society will have few behavioural constraints and may engage in excessively over indulgent or criminal behaviour.
If the Id is in control (the ego has been unable to balance the demands equally), the attitude and behaviour may be 'Just go for it, forget the
consequences'. E.g. if deciding whether to study or go out and party, the id would choose to party.
If the superego is in control (the ego has been unable to balance the demands equally), the individual will listen to conscious thought before acting however this can cause feelings of guilt. E.g. in the above example, the superego would choose to study...and keep studying.
If the ego is successful in managing both the id and the superego, personality is stable and balanced. E.g. study and party in moderation.
Evaluation of personality theory
Strengths
+ Explains the experience of being pulled in different directions when making decisions. Most people have experienced this sensation e.g. students choosing to study or party
+ The concepts of id, ego and superego take into account individual differences e.g. why some people are more conscientious than others
Weaknesses
- The id, ego and superego are not measurable – abstract ideas that are difficult to study. This means that this is not a scientific explanation and lacks credibility
- No evidence of specific components for personality
Defence Mechanisms
According to Freud the ego can be very fragile especially if it has been weakened. This may happen because of problems encountered as a child failing to successfully negotiate one of the key stages of psychosexual development.
How personality affects an individual: The superego places high demands on the ego using the ego ideal to set minimum standards of behaviour – this means that individuals have a perspective of the ‘perfect’ version of themself. The id can be overly demanding – this again puts pressure on the ego to meet its demands. In order to protect itself from anxiety the ego uses defence mechanisms – these are ways in which
desires can be pushed out of conscious thought (protection from the superego and its overly high standards) or transferring the desire onto something safer(meeting the ids demands by meeting the need but in an acceptable way).
The defence mechanisms are:
Repression – thoughts are kept in the unconscious and not allowed into the conscious mind. It is a form of motivated forgetting however this is done unconsciously – the individual is unaware they have these thoughts. E.g. individuals who are abused may say they cannot remember.
Denial – when something traumatic happens but the individual acts as if it did not happen. This protects the individual from unhappy or unacceptable thoughts. E.g. denial of inappropriate sexual feelings
Regression – if an individual is faced with a stressful situation they revert to childhood behaviour. E.g. thumb sucking
Projection – dealing with unacceptable thoughts by saying they are someone elses unacceptable thoughts e.g. someone who cheats on their partner may focus on other individuals who cheat or by projecting it onto their own partner and saying they have cheated
For the exam you must be able to describe repression and one other.
Strengths
+ Evidence to support – Anna O refused to drink from a glass until Freud revealed her repressed memory of a dog licking a window (a repressed memory). This suggests that defence mechanisms keep urges in the unconscious and once revealed problems stop
+ Everyday examples of defence mechanisms e.g. denial is a term commonly used; victims of crimes cannot often remember events
Weaknesses
- Hard to prove the existence of defence mechanisms – we are unable to test these scientifically as they are not measurable. Although examples can be found these are not scientific.
- Subjective – as these are based on individuals interpretation of what the person tells a therapist people may view the behaviour differently e.g. if someone says their sisters hates their father some could consider this projection however another person might interpret this as genuine feelings towards the father
- Case study evidence – this means evidence is based on one individual e.g. Anna O, and may not represent other individuals
Psychosexual Stages
During these stages the libido focuses on different body parts. The first 3 stages are said to be the most important. In these stages if the child is overindulged and their needs are met too much the person will remain fixated. Likewise if their needs are not met, they are frustrated and again the person will remain fixated. This means part of the libido remains locked into this stage. Normal development occurs if none of the libido remains in a previous stage.
Oral: The first psychosexual stage, from birth – 18 months. In this stage the libido is focused on the mouth and the child gains pleasure through sucking e.g. having a dummy or bottle, sucking its thumb. In this stage the id is the only part of personality to have developed, and the infant demands that all its needs are met at once.
Anal: The second stage of development from 18 months – 2.5 years. The libido focused on the anus. Pleasure comes from retaining or expelling faeces. This stage focuses on learning to control instinctive behaviour due to the ego developing, which operates using the reality principle. This means that children learn how to balance what they want with reality e.g. not having ice cream unless they have eaten their dinner.
Phallic: The third psychosexual stage, the libido is focused on the genitals. In this stage children learn their gender through the Oedipus and Electra complex, and are aged 4-5.
Latency: The fourth stage, this is a period of calm where there is no sexual drive. Children in this stage focus on same sex friendship.
Genital: Starts at puberty and is the final psychosexual stage. The libido focused on the genitals and relationships begin to develop with the opposite sex. Normal relationships are formed if the previous stages have been completed successfully.
Fixations
A child at a given stage of development has certain needs and demands, such as the need of the infant to nurse. Frustration occurs when these needs are not met; Overindulgence stems from such an ample meeting of these needs that the child is reluctant to progress beyond
the stage. Both frustration and overindulgence lock some amount of the child's libido permanently into the stage in which they occur; both result in a fixation. This will then dominate and affect adult personality.
Oral: from frustration – pessimistic, sarcastic; from overindulgence – optimistic, gullible. Characteristics shown – smoking, thumb sucking, chewing pens
Anal: If parents are too lenient (overindulgent) the child may have an anal expulsive character in adulthood and be messy, reckless and disorganised. If too harsh an anal retentive character will occur which is tidy, careful and precise.
Phallic: Fixation in this stage can result in someone who is reckless, self assured, vain and proud and may find relationships difficult.
Strengths
+Freud was correct to say that early years and early relationships are important in development
+ Strong support for the existence of oral and anal personalities
+ Other psychologists would also agree that children do develop in stages
+ Little Hans is evidence for gender development and the phallic stage
+ Freud used case studies so he gathered a lot of in depth information in his research
+ It helps people to break habits such as smoking by explaining that habits can link to early childhood trauma so exploring that link can help
people
+ It allowed people with mental disorders to be treated. It showed that the unconscious caused mental disorder so by using dream analysis
to access the unconscious patients could be cured
Weaknesses
- Overemphasis of the importance of body parts, libido, and the sexual nature in children’s development
- Stages too narrow in description of what happens and also stop at adolescence – other psychologists would continue these throughout life
- Oedipus complex is not scientific, and we cannot measure concepts such as penis envy and castration anxiety
- Evidence suggests children are ware of their gender before the genital stage
- Children in single sex families do not have problems understanding their gender
- Not scientific as libido cannot be observed and measured
- Case studies are unique and may not be generalised to the whole population
- Freud’s research was based on female, middle class patients, so may not be representative